(continuous improvements)

Экономика: непрерывные улучшения

the seeking of small improvements in processes and products, with the objective of increasing quality and reducing waste. Continuous improvement is one of the tools that underpin the philosophies of total quality management and lean production. Through constant study and revision of processes, a better product can result at reduced cost. Kaizen has become a foundation for many continuous improvement strategies, and for many employees it is synonymous with continuous improvement.

1) Компьютерная техника: Case Insensitive, Context Independent, Contextualized Information, Control Interval, Cybernetic Intelligence

2) Авиация: conversion instruction, cost improvement, course indicator

3) Медицина: Confidence Interval (доверительный интервал), contraindications (противопоказания), constraint-induced

4) Американизм: Critical Infrastructure

5) Спорт: Crowd Involvement

6) Военный термин: Checking In, Connected Intelligence, Coordinating Installation, Current Intelligence, capability inspection, center of impact, chief inspector, chief instructor, chief of information, civilian internee, classification of inventory, classified information, combat intelligence, combat interviews, combat-ineffective, command information, command inspection, compilation of information, computer indicator, concealed installation, configuration item, controlled item, corps instructions, counterinsurgency, counterintelligence, criminal investigation, criminal investigator, critical item

7) Техника: carrier-to-interference ratio, chemical injection, circuit interruption, combat information, communications and instrumentation, communications information, comparison indicator, compression-ignition, configuration interaction, configuration-independent, containment integrity, containment isolation, control & instrumentation, crystal impedance

8) Химия: Composite Index

9) Математика: Constant Interpolation, доверительный интервал (confidence interval)

10) Железнодорожный термин: Cambria and Indiana Railroad Company

11) Юридический термин: Confidential Intermediary, Criminal Intent

12) Экономика: (continuous improvements) непрерывные улучшения

13) Бухгалтерия: Compound Interest

14) Статистика: (confidence interval) ДИ (доверительный интервал)

15) Автомобильный термин: центральный впрыск

16) Биржевой термин: Coupon Income, Cumulative Interest

17) Металлургия: corrugated iron

18) Политика: Chile

19) Телекоммуникации: Computer Interconnect, Customer Installation

20) Сокращение: Carnegie Institute, Channel Islands, Chile (NATO country code), Civilian Internees (USA), Combat Identification, Commonwealth Institute, Communist International, Compression Ignition, Consumers Institute, Control Indicator, Counter-Intelligence, Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire), Clearing Index, Colour Index, Contour Interval, Cubic Inches, Cumulative Index, Current-Awareness Information, cardiac index

21) Университет: Cordage Institute

22) Физика: Constant Intensity, Convective Instability

23) Физиология: Cerebral Infarction, Cochlear Implant, Contra Indications

24) Электроника: Component Instance, Copper Insert

25) Вычислительная техника: Coded Information, Congestion Indicator, card input, chain index, common interface, component interface, computer interface, copy-inhibit, Configuration Item (CM), Component Interface (DMI), Check In (RCS), индекс цепочки, интерфейс компонентов, интерфейс компьютера

26) Нефть: cone interference, correlation index, crystallization index, контурный интервал (contour interval)

27) Кардиология: coupling interval (предэкстрасистолический интервал), cardiac index (сердечный индекс)

28) Иммунология: Cardio Interactive

29) Биохимия: Cardial Index, Colloidal Iron

30) Космонавтика: Conservation International

31) Геофизика: интервал между изолиниями, сечение

32) Транспорт: Complex Interchange, Constant Injection, Corrosion Inhibitor, Custom Indicator

33) Фирменный знак: Cinch, Creative Innovations

34) СМИ: Correspondence Information

35) Деловая лексика: Check In, Competitive Intelligence, Corporate Identity

36) Бурение: чугун (cast iron)

37) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: cutting injection

38) Менеджмент: ( Corporate Identity) фирменный/корпоративный стиль

39) Образование: Curriculum And Instruction

40) Сетевые технологии: Congestion Indication

41) Полимеры: color index, confidence interval

42) Контроль качества: непрерывные улучшения (continuous improvement)

43) Сахалин Ю: inhibitor

44) Кабельные производство: chlorine

45) Химическое оружие: Chemical ionization

46) Макаров: конфигурационное взаимодействие

47) Расширение файла: Call Indicator

48) SAP.тех. центральная инстанция

49) Нефть и газ: continuous improvement, (Corrosion Ingibitor) Ингибитор коррозии

50) Электротехника: characteristic impedance, circuit interrupter, current interruption

51) Общественная организация: Cadence International, Childcare International, Compassion International

52) Должность: Certified Instructor, Claims Investigator, Co Investigator, Communications And Information, Component Inspector

53) NYSE. Cigna Corporation

54) Федеральное бюро расследований: Cincinnati Field Office, Communist Index, Confidential Informant

55) Международная торговля: Commercial Import

1) Компьютерная техника: Case Insensitive, Context Independent, Contextualized Information, Control Interval, Cybernetic Intelligence

2) Авиация: conversion instruction, cost improvement, course indicator

3) Медицина: Confidence Interval (доверительный интервал), contraindications (противопоказания), constraint-induced

4) Американизм: Critical Infrastructure

5) Спорт: Crowd Involvement

6) Военный термин: Checking In, Connected Intelligence, Coordinating Installation, Current Intelligence, capability inspection, center of impact, chief inspector, chief instructor, chief of information, civilian internee, classification of inventory, classified information, combat intelligence, combat interviews, combat-ineffective, command information, command inspection, compilation of information, computer indicator, concealed installation, configuration item, controlled item, corps instructions, counterinsurgency, counterintelligence, criminal investigation, criminal investigator, critical item

7) Техника: carrier-to-interference ratio, chemical injection, circuit interruption, combat information, communications and instrumentation, communications information, comparison indicator, compression-ignition, configuration interaction, configuration-independent, containment integrity, containment isolation, control & instrumentation, crystal impedance

8) Химия: Composite Index

9) Математика: Constant Interpolation, доверительный интервал (confidence interval)

10) Железнодорожный термин: Cambria and Indiana Railroad Company

11) Юридический термин: Confidential Intermediary, Criminal Intent

12) Экономика: (continuous improvements) непрерывные улучшения

13) Бухгалтерия: Compound Interest

14) Статистика: (confidence interval) ДИ (доверительный интервал)

15) Автомобильный термин: центральный впрыск

16) Биржевой термин: Coupon Income, Cumulative Interest

17) Металлургия: corrugated iron

18) Политика: Chile

19) Телекоммуникации: Computer Interconnect, Customer Installation

20) Сокращение: Carnegie Institute, Channel Islands, Chile (NATO country code), Civilian Internees (USA), Combat Identification, Commonwealth Institute, Communist International, Compression Ignition, Consumers Institute, Control Indicator, Counter-Intelligence, Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire), Clearing Index, Colour Index, Contour Interval, Cubic Inches, Cumulative Index, Current-Awareness Information, cardiac index

21) Университет: Cordage Institute

22) Физика: Constant Intensity, Convective Instability

23) Физиология: Cerebral Infarction, Cochlear Implant, Contra Indications

24) Электроника: Component Instance, Copper Insert

25) Вычислительная техника: Coded Information, Congestion Indicator, card input, chain index, common interface, component interface, computer interface, copy-inhibit, Configuration Item (CM), Component Interface (DMI), Check In (RCS), индекс цепочки, интерфейс компонентов, интерфейс компьютера

26) Нефть: cone interference, correlation index, crystallization index, контурный интервал (contour interval)

27) Кардиология: coupling interval (предэкстрасистолический интервал), cardiac index (сердечный индекс)

28) Иммунология: Cardio Interactive

29) Биохимия: Cardial Index, Colloidal Iron

30) Космонавтика: Conservation International

31) Геофизика: интервал между изолиниями, сечение

32) Транспорт: Complex Interchange, Constant Injection, Corrosion Inhibitor, Custom Indicator

33) Фирменный знак: Cinch, Creative Innovations

34) СМИ: Correspondence Information

35) Деловая лексика: Check In, Competitive Intelligence, Corporate Identity

36) Бурение: чугун (cast iron)

37) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: cutting injection

38) Менеджмент: ( Corporate Identity) фирменный/корпоративный стиль

39) Образование: Curriculum And Instruction

40) Сетевые технологии: Congestion Indication

41) Полимеры: color index, confidence interval

42) Контроль качества: непрерывные улучшения (continuous improvement)

43) Сахалин Ю: inhibitor

44) Кабельные производство: chlorine

45) Химическое оружие: Chemical ionization

46) Макаров: конфигурационное взаимодействие

47) Расширение файла: Call Indicator

48) SAP.тех. центральная инстанция

49) Нефть и газ: continuous improvement, (Corrosion Ingibitor) Ингибитор коррозии

50) Электротехника: characteristic impedance, circuit interrupter, current interruption

51) Общественная организация: Cadence International, Childcare International, Compassion International

52) Должность: Certified Instructor, Claims Investigator, Co Investigator, Communications And Information, Component Inspector

53) NYSE. Cigna Corporation

54) Федеральное бюро расследований: Cincinnati Field Office, Communist Index, Confidential Informant

55) Международная торговля: Commercial Import

1) Компьютерная техника: Case Insensitive, Context Independent, Contextualized Information, Control Interval, Cybernetic Intelligence

2) Авиация: conversion instruction, cost improvement, course indicator

3) Медицина: Confidence Interval (доверительный интервал), contraindications (противопоказания), constraint-induced

4) Американизм: Critical Infrastructure

5) Спорт: Crowd Involvement

6) Военный термин: Checking In, Connected Intelligence, Coordinating Installation, Current Intelligence, capability inspection, center of impact, chief inspector, chief instructor, chief of information, civilian internee, classification of inventory, classified information, combat intelligence, combat interviews, combat-ineffective, command information, command inspection, compilation of information, computer indicator, concealed installation, configuration item, controlled item, corps instructions, counterinsurgency, counterintelligence, criminal investigation, criminal investigator, critical item

7) Техника: carrier-to-interference ratio, chemical injection, circuit interruption, combat information, communications and instrumentation, communications information, comparison indicator, compression-ignition, configuration interaction, configuration-independent, containment integrity, containment isolation, control & instrumentation, crystal impedance

8) Химия: Composite Index

9) Математика: Constant Interpolation, доверительный интервал (confidence interval)

10) Железнодорожный термин: Cambria and Indiana Railroad Company

11) Юридический термин: Confidential Intermediary, Criminal Intent

12) Экономика: (continuous improvements) непрерывные улучшения

13) Бухгалтерия: Compound Interest

14) Статистика: (confidence interval) ДИ (доверительный интервал)

15) Автомобильный термин: центральный впрыск

16) Биржевой термин: Coupon Income, Cumulative Interest

17) Металлургия: corrugated iron

18) Политика: Chile

19) Телекоммуникации: Computer Interconnect, Customer Installation

20) Сокращение: Carnegie Institute, Channel Islands, Chile (NATO country code), Civilian Internees (USA), Combat Identification, Commonwealth Institute, Communist International, Compression Ignition, Consumers Institute, Control Indicator, Counter-Intelligence, Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire), Clearing Index, Colour Index, Contour Interval, Cubic Inches, Cumulative Index, Current-Awareness Information, cardiac index

21) Университет: Cordage Institute

22) Физика: Constant Intensity, Convective Instability

23) Физиология: Cerebral Infarction, Cochlear Implant, Contra Indications

24) Электроника: Component Instance, Copper Insert

25) Вычислительная техника: Coded Information, Congestion Indicator, card input, chain index, common interface, component interface, computer interface, copy-inhibit, Configuration Item (CM), Component Interface (DMI), Check In (RCS), индекс цепочки, интерфейс компонентов, интерфейс компьютера

26) Нефть: cone interference, correlation index, crystallization index, контурный интервал (contour interval)

27) Кардиология: coupling interval (предэкстрасистолический интервал), cardiac index (сердечный индекс)

28) Иммунология: Cardio Interactive

29) Биохимия: Cardial Index, Colloidal Iron

30) Космонавтика: Conservation International

31) Геофизика: интервал между изолиниями, сечение

32) Транспорт: Complex Interchange, Constant Injection, Corrosion Inhibitor, Custom Indicator

33) Фирменный знак: Cinch, Creative Innovations

34) СМИ: Correspondence Information

35) Деловая лексика: Check In, Competitive Intelligence, Corporate Identity

36) Бурение: чугун (cast iron)

37) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: cutting injection

38) Менеджмент: ( Corporate Identity) фирменный/корпоративный стиль

39) Образование: Curriculum And Instruction

40) Сетевые технологии: Congestion Indication

41) Полимеры: color index, confidence interval

42) Контроль качества: непрерывные улучшения (continuous improvement)

43) Сахалин Ю: inhibitor

44) Кабельные производство: chlorine

45) Химическое оружие: Chemical ionization

46) Макаров: конфигурационное взаимодействие

47) Расширение файла: Call Indicator

48) SAP.тех. центральная инстанция

49) Нефть и газ: continuous improvement, (Corrosion Ingibitor) Ингибитор коррозии

50) Электротехника: characteristic impedance, circuit interrupter, current interruption

51) Общественная организация: Cadence International, Childcare International, Compassion International

52) Должность: Certified Instructor, Claims Investigator, Co Investigator, Communications And Information, Component Inspector

53) NYSE. Cigna Corporation

54) Федеральное бюро расследований: Cincinnati Field Office, Communist Index, Confidential Informant

55) Международная торговля: Commercial Import

1) Общая лексика: cataloging in publication

2) Геология: carbon in pulp

3) Авиация: compressor inlet pressure, пассажир первого или бизнес-класса (Commercial Important Person)

4) Медицина: cleaning in place, Программа обучения клинического исследователя (Clinical Investigator Program), План клинического исследования (Clinical Investigation Plan), Протокол клинического исследования

5) Американизм: Career Intern Program, Civilian Institution Program

6) Военный термин: Candidate Interoperability Plan, Capital Investment Program, Civil Institution Program, Clothing Issue Point, Combined Interoperability Program, Command Inspection Program, Common Infrastructure Program, Communications Implementation Plan, Communications Intelligence Program, Communications Interface Processor, Correlation and Integration Processor, Country Information Package, Critical Intelligence Parameter, Crypto-Ignition Plug, Cryptographic Interface Provider, central information post, civilian instruction program, combat information plot, combat information processor, combat intelligence plan, combined instrument panel, command information program, communications improvement program, component improvement program, composite interface program, consolidated intelligence program, cost improvement program, counterinsurgency plan

7) Техника: call information processing, central region communications improvement program, containment improvement program, controlled impedance package, clean in place

8) Сельское хозяйство: Cleaned-In-Place, cleaning-in-place

9) Химия: очистка на месте (cleaning -in-place)

10) Юридический термин: Challenge Incarceration Program, The Common Indexing Protocol, freight/carriage and insurance paid to (...)

11) Бухгалтерия: Central Investment Program

12) Оптика: cold isostatic pressing

13) Телекоммуникации: Carrier Identification Parameter, Channel Interface Processor, Classical Internet Protocol over ATM, Construction in Progress, Channel Interface Processor (Cisco)

14) Сокращение: Central Imagery Processor, Collision Intervention Processor, Combat Identification Panel, Common Imagery Processor, Common Integrated Processor, Component Improvement Program (USA), Critical Infrastructure Protection, cast-iron pipe, Carriage and Insurance Paid to...

15) Университет: Classification Of Instructional Programs

16) Электроника: Cascade Improvement Program, Continuous Improvement Program

17) Вычислительная техника: Computer Integrated Processing, Common ISDN Profile (Bluetooth, CAPI, ISDN), Classical IP over ATM (IP, ATM, IETF), Common Industrial Protocol (ODVA), control and information protocol

18) Нефть: carriage and insurance paid, cement in place, closed-in pressure, давление в скважине после её остановки (closed-in pressure), цементировать при монтаже (to cement in place)

19) Космонавтика: Cleaner Industrial Production, co-ordinated instrument package

20) Банковское дело: Customer Identification Program (США)

21) Биотехнология: Chromosomal integration plasmid

22) Транспорт: Capital Investment Plan, перевозка и страхование оплачены до (carriage and insurance paid to)

23) Фирменный знак: Check It Products

24) Экология: Climate Impact Study Program

25) Патенты: continuation-in-part

26) Деловая лексика: Capital Improvement Plan, Capital Improvements Program, Computer Incorporated People, Computer Investment Program, Continuous Improvement Plan, Continuous Improvement Process

27) Менеджмент: Continuous Improvement Process (процесс непрерывных улучшений), Common International Process

28) Сетевые технологии: Common Isochronous Packet, Communicating Interacting Processes, complex information processing, комплексная обработка информации, common industrial protocol

29) ЕБРР: (carriage and insurance paid to,... named place of destination) СИП (указать место назначения; перевозка и страхование оплачены до...)

30) Сахалин Р: Chemical Injection Package

31) Химическое оружие: Comprehensive Implementation Plan

32) Безопасность: Complete Internet Protection

33) Золотодобыча: carbon in pulp process, carbon-in-pulp, carbon-in-pulp process, выщелачивание золота цианистыми растворами с последующей адсорбцией металла из нефильтрованных пульп гранулированным активированным углём, уголь в пульпе (carbon in pulp), «уголь-в-пульпе», цианирование с последующей сорбцией на уголь

34) Расширение файла: Command Interface Port, Common Indexing Protocol

35) Техника киносъёмки: Coating Inspector Program (NACE)

36) Федеральное бюро расследований: Counterintelligence Program

37) Международные перевозки: Carriage and insurance paid to (Incoterms)

1) Общая лексика: cataloging in publication

2) Геология: carbon in pulp

3) Авиация: compressor inlet pressure, пассажир первого или бизнес-класса (Commercial Important Person)

4) Медицина: cleaning in place, Программа обучения клинического исследователя (Clinical Investigator Program), План клинического исследования (Clinical Investigation Plan), Протокол клинического исследования

5) Американизм: Career Intern Program, Civilian Institution Program

6) Военный термин: Candidate Interoperability Plan, Capital Investment Program, Civil Institution Program, Clothing Issue Point, Combined Interoperability Program, Command Inspection Program, Common Infrastructure Program, Communications Implementation Plan, Communications Intelligence Program, Communications Interface Processor, Correlation and Integration Processor, Country Information Package, Critical Intelligence Parameter, Crypto-Ignition Plug, Cryptographic Interface Provider, central information post, civilian instruction program, combat information plot, combat information processor, combat intelligence plan, combined instrument panel, command information program, communications improvement program, component improvement program, composite interface program, consolidated intelligence program, cost improvement program, counterinsurgency plan

7) Техника: call information processing, central region communications improvement program, containment improvement program, controlled impedance package, clean in place

8) Сельское хозяйство: Cleaned-In-Place, cleaning-in-place

9) Химия: очистка на месте (cleaning -in-place)

10) Юридический термин: Challenge Incarceration Program, The Common Indexing Protocol, freight/carriage and insurance paid to (...)

11) Бухгалтерия: Central Investment Program

12) Оптика: cold isostatic pressing

13) Телекоммуникации: Carrier Identification Parameter, Channel Interface Processor, Classical Internet Protocol over ATM, Construction in Progress, Channel Interface Processor (Cisco)

14) Сокращение: Central Imagery Processor, Collision Intervention Processor, Combat Identification Panel, Common Imagery Processor, Common Integrated Processor, Component Improvement Program (USA), Critical Infrastructure Protection, cast-iron pipe, Carriage and Insurance Paid to...

15) Университет: Classification Of Instructional Programs

16) Электроника: Cascade Improvement Program, Continuous Improvement Program

17) Вычислительная техника: Computer Integrated Processing, Common ISDN Profile (Bluetooth, CAPI, ISDN), Classical IP over ATM (IP, ATM, IETF), Common Industrial Protocol (ODVA), control and information protocol

18) Нефть: carriage and insurance paid, cement in place, closed-in pressure, давление в скважине после её остановки (closed-in pressure), цементировать при монтаже (to cement in place)

19) Космонавтика: Cleaner Industrial Production, co-ordinated instrument package

20) Банковское дело: Customer Identification Program (США)

21) Биотехнология: Chromosomal integration plasmid

22) Транспорт: Capital Investment Plan, перевозка и страхование оплачены до (carriage and insurance paid to)

23) Фирменный знак: Check It Products

24) Экология: Climate Impact Study Program

25) Патенты: continuation-in-part

26) Деловая лексика: Capital Improvement Plan, Capital Improvements Program, Computer Incorporated People, Computer Investment Program, Continuous Improvement Plan, Continuous Improvement Process

27) Менеджмент: Continuous Improvement Process (процесс непрерывных улучшений), Common International Process

28) Сетевые технологии: Common Isochronous Packet, Communicating Interacting Processes, complex information processing, комплексная обработка информации, common industrial protocol

29) ЕБРР: (carriage and insurance paid to,... named place of destination) СИП (указать место назначения; перевозка и страхование оплачены до...)

30) Сахалин Р: Chemical Injection Package

31) Химическое оружие: Comprehensive Implementation Plan

32) Безопасность: Complete Internet Protection

33) Золотодобыча: carbon in pulp process, carbon-in-pulp, carbon-in-pulp process, выщелачивание золота цианистыми растворами с последующей адсорбцией металла из нефильтрованных пульп гранулированным активированным углём, уголь в пульпе (carbon in pulp), «уголь-в-пульпе», цианирование с последующей сорбцией на уголь

34) Расширение файла: Command Interface Port, Common Indexing Protocol

35) Техника киносъёмки: Coating Inspector Program (NACE)

36) Федеральное бюро расследований: Counterintelligence Program

37) Международные перевозки: Carriage and insurance paid to (Incoterms)

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

[br]

[br]

[br]

He acquired a considerable knowledge of wire-making in his father's works before he took a position in 1839 at the works of James Edleston at Warrington. From there, in 1851, he went to Manchester as Manager of Richard Johnson \& Sons' wire mill, where he remained for the rest of his life. It was there that he initiated several important improvements in the manufacture of wire. These included a system of circulating puddling furnace water bottoms and sides, and a galvanizing process. His most important innovation, however, was the continuous mill for producing iron rod for wiredrawing. Previously the red-hot iron billets had to be handled repeatedly through a stand or set of rolls to reduce the billet to the required shape, with time and heat being lost at each handling. In Bedson's continuous mill, the billet entered the first of a succession of stands placed as closely to each other as possible and emerged from the final one as rod suitable for wiredrawing, without any intermediate handling. A second novel feature was that alternate rolls were arranged vertically to save turning the piece manually through a right angle. That improved the quality as well as the speed of production. Bedson's first continuous mill was erected in Manchester in 1862 and had sixteen stands in tandem. A mill on this principle had been patented the previous year by Charles While of Pontypridd, South Wales, but it was Bedson who made it work and brought it into use commercially. A difficult problem to overcome was that as the piece being rolled lengthened, its speed increased, so that each pair of rolls had to increase correspondingly. The only source of power was a steam engine working a single drive shaft, but Bedson achieved the greater speeds by using successively larger gear-wheels at each stand.

Bedson's first mill was highly successful, and a second one was erected at the Manchester works; however, its application was limited to the production of small bars, rods and sections. Nevertheless, Bedson's mill established an important principle of rolling-mill design that was to have wider applications in later years.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

[br]

[br]

After education at a private school, Dickinson was apprenticed to a London stationer. In 1806 he started in business as a stationer, in partnership with George Longman; they transferred to 65 Old Bailey, where the firm remained until their premises were destroyed during the Second World War. In order to secure the supply of paper and be less dependent on the papermakers, Dickinson turned to making paper on his own account. In 1809 he acquired Apsley Mill, near Hemel Hempstead on the river Gade in Hertfordshire. There, he produced a new kind of paper for cannon cartridges which, unlike the paper then in use, did not smoulder, thus reducing the risk of undesired explosions. The new paper proved very useful during the Napoleonic War.

Dickinson developed a continuous papermaking machine about the same time as the Fourdrinier brothers, but his worked on a different principle. Instead of a continuous flat wire screen, Dickinson used a wire-covered cylinder which dipped into the dilute pulp as it revolved. A felt-covered roller removed the layer of wet pulp, which was then subjected to drying, as in the Fourdrinier machine. The latter was first in use at Frogmore, just upstream from Apsley Mill on the river Gade. Dickinson patented his machine in 1809 and claimed that it was superior for some kinds of paper. In feet, both types of machine have survived, in much enlarged and modified form: the Fourdrinier for general papermaking, the Dickinson cylinder for the making of board. In 1810 Dickinson acquired the nearby Nash Mill, and over the years he extended the scope of his papermaking business, introducing many technical improvements. Among his inventions was a machine to paste together continuous webs of paper to form cardboard. Another, patented in 1829, was a process for incorporating threads of cotton, flax or silk into the body of the paper to make forgery more difficult. He became increasingly prosperous, overcoming labour disputes with unemployed hand-papermakers. and lawsuits against a canal company which threatened the water supply to his mills. Dickinson was the first to use percolation gauges to predict river flow, and his work on water supply brought him election to a Fellowship of the Royal Society in 1845.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Paper and printing

[br]

[br]

[br]

It was intended that Bryan Donkin should follow his father's profession of surveyor and land agent, so he spent a year or so in that occupation before he was apprenticed to John Hall, millwright of Dartford, Kent. Donkin remained with the firm after completing his apprenticeship, and when the Fourdrinier brothers in 1802 introduced from France an invention for making paper in continuous lengths they turned to John Hall for help in developing the machine: Donkin was chosen to undertake the work. In 1803 the Fourdriniers established their own works in Bermondsey, with Bryan Donkin in charge. By 1808 Donkin had acquired the works, but he continued to manufacture paper-making machines, paying a royalty to the patentees. He also undertook other engineering work including water-wheels for driving paper and other mills. He was also involved in the development of printing machinery and the preservation of food in airtight containers. Some of these improvements were patented, and he also obtained patents relating to gearing, steel pens, paper-making and railway wheels. Other inventions of Bryan Donkin that were not patented concerned revolution counters and improvements in accurate screw threads for use in graduating mathematical scales. Donkin was elected a member of the Society of Arts in 1803 and was later Chairman of the Society's Committee of Mechanics and a Vice-President of the society. He was also a member of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1818 a group of eight young men founded the Institution of Civil Engineers; two of them were apprentices of Bryan Donkin and he encouraged their enterprise. After a change in the rules permitted the election of members over the age of 35, he himself became a member in 1821. He served on the Council and became a Vice- President, but he resigned from the Institution in 1848.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

[br]

[br]

Fourdrinier's father was a paper manufacturer and stationer of London, from a family of French Protestant origin. Henry took up the same trade and, with his brother Sealy (d. 1847), devoted many years to developing the papermaking machine. Their first patent was taken out in 1801, but success was still far off. A machine for making paper had been invented a few years previously by Nicolas Robert at the Didot's mill at Essonnes, south of Paris. Robert quarrelled with the Didots, who then contacted their brother-in-law in England, John Gamble, in an attempt to raise capital for a larger machine. Gamble and the Fourdriniers called in the engineer Bryan Donkin, and between them they patented a much improved machine in 1807. In the new machine, the paper pulp flowed on to a moving continuous woven wire screen and was then squeezed between rollers to remove much of the water. The paper thus formed was transferred to a felt blanket and passed through a second press to remove more water, before being wound while still wet on to a drum. For the first time, a continuous sheet of paper could be made. Other inventors soon made further improvements: in 1817 John Dickinson obtained a patent for sizing baths to improve the surface of the paper; while in 1820 Thomas Crompton patented a steam-heated drum round which the paper was passed to speed up the drying process. The development cost of £60,000 bankrupted the brothers. Although Parliament extended the patent for fourteen years, and the machine was widely adopted, they never reaped much profit from it. Tsar Alexander of Russia became interested in the papermaking machine while on a visit to England in 1814 and promised Henry Fourdrinier £700 per year for ten years for super-intending the erection of two machines in Russia; Henry carried out the work, but he received no payment. At the age of 72 he travelled to St Petersburg to seek recompense from the Tsar's successor Nicholas I, but to no avail. Eventually, on a motion in the House of Commons, the British Government awarded Fourdrinier a payment of £7,000. The paper trade, sensing the inadequacy of this sum, augmented it with a further sum which they subscribed so that an annuity could be purchased for Henry, then the only surviving brother, and his two daughters, to enable them to live in modest comfort. From its invention in ancient China (see Cai Lun), its appearance in the Middle Ages in Europe and through the first three and a half centuries of printing, every sheet of paper had to made by hand. The daily output of a hand-made paper mill was only 60–100 lb (27–45 kg), whereas the new machine increased that tenfold. Even higher speeds were achieved, with corresponding reductions in cost; the old mills could not possibly have kept pace with the new mechanical printing presses. The Fourdrinier machine was thus an essential element in the technological developments that brought about the revolution in the production of reading matter of all kinds during the nineteenth century. The high-speed, giant paper-making machines of the late twentieth century work on the same principle as the Fourdrinier of 1807.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

[br]

[br]

[br]

Interested from childhood in anything mechanical, as a teenager Armstrong constructed a variety of wireless equipment in the attic of his parents' home, including spark-gap transmitters and receivers with iron-filing "coherer" detectors capable of producing weak Morse-code signals. In 1912, while still a student of engineering at Columbia University, he applied positive, i.e. regenerative, feedback to a Lee De Forest triode amplifier to just below the point of oscillation and obtained a gain of some 1,000 times, giving a receiver sensitivity very much greater than hitherto possible. Furthermore, by allowing the circuit to go into full oscillation he found he could generate stable continuous-waves, making possible the first reliable CW radio transmitter. Sadly, his claim to priority with this invention, for which he filed US patents in 1913, the year he graduated from Columbia, led to many years of litigation with De Forest, to whom the US Supreme Court finally, but unjustly, awarded the patent in 1934. The engineering world clearly did not agree with this decision, for the Institution of Radio Engineers did not revoke its previous award of a gold medal and he subsequently received the highest US scientific award, the Franklin Medal, for this discovery.

During the First World War, after some time as an instructor at Columbia University, he joined the US Signal Corps laboratories in Paris, where in 1918 he invented the superheterodyne, a major contribution to radio-receiver design and for which he filed a patent in 1920. The principle of this circuit, which underlies virtually all modern radio, TV and radar reception, is that by using a local oscillator to convert, or "heterodyne", a wanted signal to a lower, fixed, "intermediate" frequency it is possible to obtain high amplification and selectivity without the need to "track" the tuning of numerous variable circuits.

Returning to Columbia after the war and eventually becoming Professor of Electrical Engineering, he made a fortune from the sale of his patent rights and used part of his wealth to fund his own research into further problems in radio communication, particularly that of receiver noise. In 1933 he filed four patents covering the use of wide-band frequency modulation (FM) to achieve low-noise, high-fidelity sound broadcasting, but unable to interest RCA he eventually built a complete broadcast transmitter at his own expense in 1939 to prove the advantages of his system. Unfortunately, there followed another long battle to protect and exploit his patents, and exhausted and virtually ruined he took his own life in 1954, just as the use of FM became an established technique.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Land transport, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Ports and shipping, Public utilities, Railways and locomotives

[br]

[br]

[br]

The son of Marc Isambard Brunel and Sophia Kingdom, he was educated at a private boarding-school in Hove. At the age of 14 he went to the College of Caen and then to the Lycée Henri-Quatre in Paris, after which he was apprenticed to Louis Breguet. In 1822 he returned from France and started working in his father's office, while spending much of his time at the works of Maudslay, Sons \& Field.

From 1825 to 1828 he worked under his father on the construction of the latter's Thames Tunnel, occupying the position of Engineer-in-Charge, exhibiting great courage and presence of mind in the emergencies which occurred not infrequently. These culminated in January 1828 in the flooding of the tunnel and work was suspended for seven years. For the next five years the young engineer made abortive attempts to find a suitable outlet for his talents, but to little avail. Eventually, in 1831, his design for a suspension bridge over the River Avon at Clifton Gorge was accepted and he was appointed Engineer. (The bridge was eventually finished five years after Brunel's death, as a memorial to him, the delay being due to inadequate financing.) He next planned and supervised improvements to the Bristol docks. In March 1833 he was appointed Engineer of the Bristol Railway, later called the Great Western Railway. He immediately started to survey the route between London and Bristol that was completed by late August that year. On 5 July 1836 he married Mary Horsley and settled into 18 Duke Street, Westminster, London, where he also had his office. Work on the Bristol Railway started in 1836. The foundation stone of the Clifton Suspension Bridge was laid the same year. Whereas George Stephenson had based his standard railway gauge as 4 ft 8½ in (1.44 m), that or a similar gauge being usual for colliery wagonways in the Newcastle area, Brunel adopted the broader gauge of 7 ft (2.13 m). The first stretch of the line, from Paddington to Maidenhead, was opened to traffic on 4 June 1838, and the whole line from London to Bristol was opened in June 1841. The continuation of the line through to Exeter was completed and opened on 1 May 1844. The normal time for the 194-mile (312 km) run from Paddington to Exeter was 5 hours, at an average speed of 38.8 mph (62.4 km/h) including stops. The Great Western line included the Box Tunnel, the longest tunnel to that date at nearly two miles (3.2 km).

Brunel was the engineer of most of the railways in the West Country, in South Wales and much of Southern Ireland. As railway networks developed, the frequent break of gauge became more of a problem and on 9 July 1845 a Royal Commission was appointed to look into it. In spite of comparative tests, run between Paddington-Didcot and Darlington-York, which showed in favour of Brunel's arrangement, the enquiry ruled in favour of the narrow gauge, 274 miles (441 km) of the former having been built against 1,901 miles (3,059 km) of the latter to that date. The Gauge Act of 1846 forbade the building of any further railways in Britain to any gauge other than 4 ft 8 1/2 in (1.44 m).

The existence of long and severe gradients on the South Devon Railway led to Brunel's adoption of the atmospheric railway developed by Samuel Clegg and later by the Samuda brothers. In this a pipe of 9 in. (23 cm) or more in diameter was laid between the rails, along the top of which ran a continuous hinged flap of leather backed with iron. At intervals of about 3 miles (4.8 km) were pumping stations to exhaust the pipe. Much trouble was experienced with the flap valve and its lubrication—freezing of the leather in winter, the lubricant being sucked into the pipe or eaten by rats at other times—and the experiment was abandoned at considerable cost.

Brunel is to be remembered for his two great West Country tubular bridges, the Chepstow and the Tamar Bridge at Saltash, with the latter opened in May 1859, having two main spans of 465 ft (142 m) and a central pier extending 80 ft (24 m) below high water mark and allowing 100 ft (30 m) of headroom above the same. His timber viaducts throughout Devon and Cornwall became a feature of the landscape. The line was extended ultimately to Penzance.

As early as 1835 Brunel had the idea of extending the line westwards across the Atlantic from Bristol to New York by means of a steamship. In 1836 building commenced and the hull left Bristol in July 1837 for fitting out at Wapping. On 31 March 1838 the ship left again for Bristol but the boiler lagging caught fire and Brunel was injured in the subsequent confusion. On 8 April the ship set sail for New York (under steam), its rival, the 703-ton Sirius, having left four days earlier. The 1,340-ton Great Western arrived only a few hours after the Sirius. The hull was of wood, and was copper-sheathed. In 1838 Brunel planned a larger ship, some 3,000 tons, the Great Britain, which was to have an iron hull.

The Great Britain was screwdriven and was launched on 19 July 1843,289 ft (88 m) long by 51 ft (15.5 m) at its widest. The ship's first voyage, from Liverpool to New York, began on 26 August 1845. In 1846 it ran aground in Dundrum Bay, County Down, and was later sold for use on the Australian run, on which it sailed no fewer than thirty-two times in twenty-three years, also serving as a troop-ship in the Crimean War. During this war, Brunel designed a 1,000-bed hospital which was shipped out to Renkioi ready for assembly and complete with shower-baths and vapour-baths with printed instructions on how to use them, beds and bedding and water closets with a supply of toilet paper! Brunel's last, largest and most extravagantly conceived ship was the Great Leviathan, eventually named The Great Eastern, which had a double-skinned iron hull, together with both paddles and screw propeller. Brunel designed the ship to carry sufficient coal for the round trip to Australia without refuelling, thus saving the need for and the cost of bunkering, as there were then few bunkering ports throughout the world. The ship's construction was started by John Scott Russell in his yard at Millwall on the Thames, but the building was completed by Brunel due to Russell's bankruptcy in 1856. The hull of the huge vessel was laid down so as to be launched sideways into the river and then to be floated on the tide. Brunel's plan for hydraulic launching gear had been turned down by the directors on the grounds of cost, an economy that proved false in the event. The sideways launch with over 4,000 tons of hydraulic power together with steam winches and floating tugs on the river took over two months, from 3 November 1857 until 13 January 1858. The ship was 680 ft (207 m) long, 83 ft (25 m) beam and 58 ft (18 m) deep; the screw was 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter and paddles 60 ft (18.3 m) in diameter. Its displacement was 32,000 tons (32,500 tonnes).

The strain of overwork and the huge responsibilities that lay on Brunel began to tell. He was diagnosed as suffering from Bright's disease, or nephritis, and spent the winter travelling in the Mediterranean and Egypt, returning to England in May 1859. On 5 September he suffered a stroke which left him partially paralysed, and he died ten days later at his Duke Street home.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

[br]

[br]

The papermaking machine developed by the Fourdrinier brothers in 1807 produced a reel of paper which was cut into sheets, which were then hung up to dry in a loft. The paper often became badly cockled as a result, and ways were sought to improve the drying part of the process. Drying cylinders were introduced, but the first real benefit came from the use of dry felt in Crompton's drying machine. Various materials could be used, but Crompton found that felt made from linen wrap and a woollen weft was best. In 1820 he took out a patent for steam-heated drying cylinders, and in the following year a patent for a cutter to cut the paper reel into sheets. With Crompton's improvements, the papermaking machine assumed its modern form in essentials. In 1839 Crompton installed centrifugal air fans for reciprocating suction pumps in the suction boxes to extract water from the paper on the continuous wire mould. Crompton owned and operated a successful paper mill at Farnworth in Lancashire, supplying the principal merchants and newspaper publishers in London. He was also a cotton manufacturer and, for a time, owned the Morning Post and other newspapers. By the time he died in 1858 he had amassed a considerable fortune.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

After being woven, woollen cloth needed to be cleaned and compacted to thicken it and take out the signs of weaving. The traditional way of doing this was to place the length of cloth in fulling stocks, where hammers pounded it in a solution of fuller's earth, but in 1833 John Dyer, a Trowbridge engineer, took out a patent for the first alternative way with real possibilities. He sold the patent the following year but must have reserved the right to make his machine himself, incorporating various additions and improvements into it, because many of the machines used in Trowbridge after 1850 came from him. Milling machines were often used in conjunction with fulling stocks. The cloth was made up into a continuous length and milled by rollers forcing it through a hole or spout, from where it dropped into the fulling liquid to be soaked before being pulled out and pushed through the hole again. Dyer had three pairs of rollers, with one pair set at right angles to the others so that the cloth was squeezed in two directions. These machines do not seem to have come into general use until the 1850s. His machine closely resembled those still in use.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

The condenser method of spinning was developed chiefly by manufacturers and machine makers in eastern Massachusetts between 1824 and 1826. John Goulding, a machinist from Dedham in Massachusetts, combined the ring doffer, patented by Ezekiel Hale in 1825, and the revolving twist tube, patented by George Danforth in 1824; with the addition of twisting keys in the tubes, the carded woollen sliver could be divided and then completely and continuously twisted. He divided the carded web longitudinally with the ring doffer and twisted these strips to consolidate them into slubbings. The dividing was carried out by covering the periphery of the doffer cylinder with separate rings of card clothing and spacing these rings apart by rings of leather, so that instead of width-way detached strips leaving the card, the strips were continuous and did not require piecing. The strips were passed through rotating tubes and wound on bobbins, and although the twist was false it sufficed to compress the fibres together ready for spinning. Goulding patented his invention in both Britain and the USA in 1826, but while his condensers were very successful and within twenty years had been adopted by a high proportion of woollen mills in America, they were not adopted in Britain until much later. Goulding also worked on other improvements to woollen machinery: he developed friction drums, on which the spools of roving from the condenser cards were placed to help transform the woollen jenny into the woollen mule or jack.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology, Domestic appliances and interiors

[br]

[br]

[br]

To assist the finances of a coal miner's family, Owens entered a glassworks at Wheeling, Virginia, at the tender age of 10, stoking coal into the "glory hole" or furnace where glass was resoftened at various stages of the hand-forming process. By the age of 15 he had become a glassblower.

In 1888 Owens moved to the glassworks of Edward Drummond Libbey at Toledo, Ohio, where within three months he was appointed Superintendent and, not long after, a branch manager. In 1893 Owens supervised the company's famous exhibit at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. He had by then begun experiments that were to lead to the first automatic bottle-blowing machine. He first used a piston pump to suck molten glass into a mould, and then transferred the gathered glass over another mould into which the bottle was blown by reversing the pump. The first patents were taken out in 1895, followed by others incorporating improvements and culminating in the patent of 8 November 1904 for an essentially perfected machine. Eventually it was capable of producing four bottles a second, thus effecting a revolution in bottle making. Owens, with Libbey and others, set up the Owens Bottle Machine Company in 1903, which Owens himself managed from 1915 to 1919, becoming Vice-President from 1915 until his death. A plant was also established in Manchester in 1905.

Besides this, Owens and Libbey first assisted Irving W.Colburn with his experiments on the continuous drawing of flat sheet glass and then in 1912 bought the patents, forming the Owens-Libbey Sheet Glass Company. In all, Owens was granted forty-five US patents, mainly relating to the manufacture and processing of glass. Owens's undoubted inventive genius was hampered by a lack of scientific knowledge, which he made good by judicious consultation.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology

[br]

[br]

[br]

From the beginning of the nineteenth century, soda had been manufactured by the Leblanc process. Important though it was, serious drawbacks had shown themselves early on. The worst was the noxious alkali waste left after the extraction of the soda, in such large quantities that two tons of waste were produced for one of soda. The first attempt to work out an alternative process was by the French scientist and engineer A.J. Fresnel, but it failed. The process consisted essentially of passing carbon dioxide into a solution of ammonia in brine (sodium chloride). The product, sodium bicarbonate, could easily be converted to soda by heating. For over half a century, practical difficulties, principally the volatility of the ammonia, dogged the process and a viable solution eluded successive chemists, including James Muspratt and William Deacon.

Finally, Ernest Solvay and his brother Alfred tackled the problem, and in 1861 they filed a Belgian patent for improvements, notably the introduction of a carbonating tower, which made the process continuous. The first works were set up at Couillet in 1863, but four further years of hard work were still needed to overcome teething troubles. Once the Solvay ammonia-soda process was working well, it made rapid strides. It was introduced into Britain in 1872 under licence to Ludwig Mond and four years later Solvay opened the large Dombaske works in France.

Solvay was a member of the Belgian Senate and a Minister of State. International institutes of physics, chemistry and sociology are named after him.

[br]